After its final victory over Carthage in the Third Punic War in 146 BC, the Roman Republic
was enjoying a period of relative peace, having established itself as the dominant power in
the Mediterranean. However, when there are not enemies abroad, enemies within will emerge.
This is the story of the Servile Wars, a string of 3 slave rebellions that rocked the Republic
in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, culminating in the famous gladiator revolt and last stand
led by Spartacus.
Though Spartacus’ revolt in 73 BC is the most well-known today, it was by no means
the first. That honour belongs to the one which happened in Sicily 60 years earlier
in 135 BC. The Romans had conquered the majority of the island at the end of the First Punic
War in 241 BC. Previous conquests on the Italian peninsula had resulted in annexation, and
the locals in the areas, the socii, were granted a substantial degree of autonomy. Though contributing
troops to the Republic, they were not required to pay tribute and they were treated more
as allies with Rome holding hegemonic power. Meanwhile Sicily became the first Roman province
and so was a different case; not only was it a mix of numerous different cultures, but
it was also a place of substantial wealth thanks to its fertile lands and ideal location.
As a result, the Romans imposed a new system of provincial rule over the island, with a
governor being assigned and tribute collected. Although the province was under Roman rule,
the Carthaginians still had substantial interest and influence there, and it would not be until
after the Second Punic War in 201 BC that these last Carthaginian vestiges were forced
from the island. Following the war, sympathisers of the Carthaginian
cause had their land confiscated, resulting in huge swathes of land being claimed by the
Republic. This fertile but cheap land attracted many investors, who bought huge tracts and
began establishing vast estates, precursors to latifundia.
Slavery was rife, not only in Sicily, but throughout the Mediterranean, and large numbers
of these slaves were bought to Sicily in order to work the farms of the estates. However,
conditions were poor; many land owners did not provide enough food or clothing for the
slaves, who, as a result, often were forced to turn to banditry and plundering to survive.
Though this was a constant worry for the Senators in Rome, the lands in Sicily were often held
by powerful equites who had judiciary powers. Thus, whenever charges were brought against
the landowners, they were simply dismissed. With the Senate effectively powerless, it
was only a matter of time before such a disenfranchised group were unified and rose in revolt, something
that finally happened in 135BC.
Eunus was a Syrian slave, one of many who had been brought over to the island and now
lived in the city of Enna. But, instead of being a labourer, he was somewhat of an entertainer.
He performed magic tricks, fire breathing, and claimed to have divine visions and messages
that prophesied him becoming a king. Antigenes, Eunus’ master, would often parade Eunus
at dinner parties, having him perform his tricks and laughing at his claims to kingship.
However, the slaves in Enna were treated particularly badly, and when they conspired to revolt in
135 BC, they turned to Eunus as their leader, inspired by his proclamations of divine favour.
The revolt began when 400 of these slaves rose up in Enna, killing their masters, along
with their masters’ wives and children, and gathering other slaves in the city to
their cause. The revolt was brutal; kangaroo courts were
established and the accused tortured and executed, and Eunus ordered that all of the wealthy
male citizens of Enna be hunted down and killed, save those who could forge weapons. These,
the slaves themselves put into chains and forced them to work producing weapons for
the rebels. Eunus proclaimed himself king and took the
name Antiochus, after the famous Seleucid king. Soon, he was able to assemble and arm
a force of 6,000 slaves, some with proper weaponry, others with more basic weapons;
slings, hatchets and rudimentary spears. Having been forced into a life of banditry by their
masters, most had at least some fighting experience and some had even been soldiers who had been
enslaved as prisoners of war, or bodyguards. With this force assembled, he began ravaging
the countryside and gathering still more men to his cause, until his army numbered some
10,000.
The Romans did make attempts to quell the revolt, however, they had not fully realised
the seriousness of the situation, and the small forces that they sent to deal with the
rebels were quickly overcome by sheer force of numbers.
Soon after this, another group of slaves on Sicily revolted, this time led by a slave
and infamous brigand called Cleon. He had been a fighter since his youth in Asia Minor,
and upon hearing of Eunus’ success had seized upon the opportunity. The Romans initially
hoped that these two factions would fight, and thus destroy each other, but instead,
Cleon sided with Eunus, bringing a further 5,000 men to his cause and acting as his general.
Together, they were able to capture the city of Acragas, whose defences had been left in
disrepair. The slaves were careful to target the wealthy, mostly leaving the lower classes
alone and, due to the huge economic disparity in Sicily, many of the lower class even rallied
to Eunus, further swelling his numbers.
After a month, a Roman Praetor, Lucius Hypsaeus, was sent with 8,000 Sicilian militia to quell
the revolt. Though the fact that a Praetor was sent shows that the Romans were now taking
the revolt more seriously, they were still not doing enough. By this time, Eunus and
Cleon had 20,000 men under their command. The 8,000 militia proved no match for their
more numerous and determined rivals and were quickly routed.
Following this, the revolt spread even further across the island, the slaves taking numerous
cities and rallying still greater numbers to their cause. Three other Praetors with
similar sized forces were also sent against the rebels, each being defeated in turn. Their
success inspired revolts in other parts of the Republic, small revolts rising in both
Rome itself and Greece, though both of these were quickly crushed before they could develop.
In 133 BC the revolt in Sicily was still going strong though, the slave’s numbers now growing
to as many as 60,000, controlling the majority of the islands key cities and even minting
their own coins. But Rome now decided to act with force, sending an army headed by the
Consul, Lucius Piso. Under his command, the Romans were able to make their first significant
gains, recapturing Morgantina, killing 8,000 slaves in the battle and crucifying those
taken as prisoners. This would act as a turning point in the Roman’s fortunes.
The following year, another Consul, Publius Rupilius, was also sent to the island. Rupilius
began a ruthless campaign to finally quell the rebellion. He first besieged the city
of Tauromenium, forcing the rebels inside to resort to cannibalism. Finally, a slave
called Sarapion betrayed the rebels, opening the gates to the Romans. The Romans stormed
the city and the slaves, starved and in no condition to fight, put up little resistance.
Rupilius ordered that all the slaves be round up, tortured, and then thrown off a cliff.
Following this, he marched to the rebel’s de facto capital of Enna where Cleon was stationed
and once again, besieged the city. Realising that he would soon face the same fate as those
at Tauromenium, Cleon decided to sally out, preferring to die in battle then starve behind
the city walls. He fought bravely, but was nonetheless cut down, his body displayed by
Rupilius to those still defending the city walls. The rebels’ moral broke at the sight,
and once again, they were betrayed, with the Romans seizing the city.
Eunus had not been present during the siege but upon hearing the death of his general
and fall of Enna, he fled with 1,000 men into the mountains. By this point, the slaves knew
they were defeated. Rupilius’ ruthless tactics had worked in breaking the morale of the rebels,
and the few who remained with Eunus knew that Rupilius would soon be marching on them next.
Rather than face the brutal punishments of Rupilius, the slaves instead decided to behead
each other rather than be taken alive. When Rupilius arrived in the mountains, he
found Eunus with a few close friends hiding in a cave. The slave leader was dragged out
and imprisoned. Though the Romans planned to torture and execute Eunus as they had with
other slaves, he died of illness in prison before they could. The following year, 131,
Rupilius was left in Sicily with a select group of soldiers to mop up the remnants of
the revolt, but with the deaths of Cleon and Eunus, the First Servile War was over. In
total, the war had cost the Romans as many as 20,000 in battle as well as an unknown
number of civilians. Up until this point, it was the first mass slave revolt the Romans
had faced, but it was only the start of numerous to follow.
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